The History of Beer II – Classical Antiquity: The Greeks and Romans
Perhaps my closing statement for the last section was too strong. While wine may have been more prestigious in Greek and Roman society of this era (roughly 1000BCE – 500CE), beer was culturally significant earlier in these increasingly class-based societies. In other areas of Europe where viticulture was less common, whether for cultural in geographical reasons, beer, ale, and mead were inherently tied to social interactions, religion, culture, and daily life. In short, never underestimate a simple brew.
As the Greeks got into beer before the Romans it seems only tight to start with them. Before Classical Greece there were two notable civilisations, the Minoan and the Mycenaean (c. 2700 – 1000BCE), and for these cultures beer was at the same level as wine, possibly even superior at times, but were these beers beer?
I must confess that I am unsure. Written evidence of words likes zythos (ζῦθος), krithinos oinos (κρίθινος οἶνος), meaning “barley wine”, and kiretaiwinu (barley-wine) show that an alcoholic beverage made from barley was extant, and analysis of ancient residues found in common drinking vessels used in daily life shows traces of this barley wine. However, it appears that the fermentation method included honey and fruits and was not dissimilar from that used in the production of wine or mead. Anyway, for our purposes here, we are going to think of them as beer.
When we look at the cusp of the Mycenaean/Minoan and Classical Greek eras, so around 1370 – 700 BCE, we find strong evidence that beer was used in ceremonial and religious activities, the cultural and societal divide between beer and wine had yet to occur, but this was soon to change and by 500 – 400BCE, the status of beer had declined significantly; it had become the drink of “barbarians” in the eyes of the Greeks, suitable only for foreigners and the working class.
Whilst it was no longer the darling of the upper echelons of the drinking class, beer continued to be brewed. Wine may have taken over elite social gatherings, but beer was still a part of daily life for many, and it continued to play a part in some religious ceremonies, particularly those cults associated with agriculture (hmm, reminds me a little of scrumpy. There were even those who thought it had medicinal properties. No, these were serious philosophers, not people just looking for an excuse to have another drink.
We can see that beer survived as a practical, affordable drink for the masses, but what caused its decreasing stature elsewhere? Essentially men and wine. As viticulture spread across the mediterranean, wine production became increasingly sophisticated and entwined with cultural institutions. The predominantly male intellectuals of the time tried to differentiate themselves and their culture from that of the “barbarians” by drinking wine. The Classical Greeks were becoming the Crane brothers of Frasier fame.
This snobbery has influenced our knowledge of consumption and production patterns of the time, with the writings we have containing the social biases of those who created them.
All right, but apart from sanitation, medicine, education, wine, public order, irrigation, roads, the fresh-water system and public health, what have the Romans ever done for us?
Well, in terms of beer, the answer appears to be not much. The Romans were traditionally wine drinkers, and their exposure to beer came about as they expanded their empire into Egypt, France (Gaul), Hispania (Spain), and Germania. Wine reigned supreme in Italy, but in areas where it was more difficult to grow grapes, or where local brewing cultures were already deeply entrenched, beer was adopted. As such, Roman brewing was based on what the Romans learnt from these cultures rather than homegrown knowledge. It is speculated that Roman cerevisia, itself a term of Celtic or Gaulish origin, was heavily influenced by Egyptian methodology using figs and other fruits as starter cultures to introduce yeast into the fermentation process.
The process, taste, and social status of the beer consumed by the Romans seem to be closely related to each other, such that it is hard to know whether the taste dictated its social level, or whether its social standing manipulated the level of sophistication of the brewing process and hence its flavour. We do know that the beer was pale in colour and light bodied, with a low alcohol content. The use of wild yeasts undoubtedly influenced its flavour profile, with Emperor Julian the Apostate describing it as smelling like a goat.
I was served a dish of lamb that made heavy use of goat milk at a French restaurant in Taipei and can attest to how off-putting the scent of goat can be in the wrong context. The description also indicates that the fermentation process was less refined than that used by Roman oenologists. Much like pasta bakes, the simple nature of the recipes used and lack of refinement in the taste that resulted would not have helped beer’s social standing.
If the Roman upper classes weren’t habitually guzzling beer, who was? Well, pretty much everyone else. Beer was popular with the working classes, being an affordable choice of alcoholic beverage, but this popularity amongst the plebiscite would have enhanced its image as a plebeian drink. Something for them, not us in the eyes of the aristocracy. As is to be expected, beer also found favour with the army.
Yet again beer found itself being used as a form of payment. Soldiers, especially those in less sunny climes were often given beer as part of their rations. This was not just done to keep the troops happy, beer was a practical source of calories and hydration, and easily produced from local resources, making it a wise choice in terms of logistics and economics, even if it meant giving up the cultural preference for wine found in the motherland.
Back home in Italy, gladiators, the sports stars of the day, who like their modern equivalents carefully managed their diets, also drank beer. According to the Carlsberg Research Lab, gladiators would have a “session-style beer on a fairly regular basis”.
An empire as large as the Roman empire was obviously not homogenised, and neither were attitudes towards beer consumption, but at its core in Italy, it was a wine-based culture and this definitely shaped perceptions of beer.
Looking at Roman literature we seem time and time again examples of beer being treated as an inferior product compared to wine. It is treated as somewhat of a foreign curiosity, similar to how modern Western audiences view the food and drink featured in travel shows. Coming back to Emperor Julian’s position on beer, while he compared it to the aroma of a goat, he compared wine to nectar. This attitude seems to have been widespread in classical Roman society, but the disdain shown by the movers and shakers does not diminish the role of beer in the lives of the masses. Practical and comforting, beer was, and still is, a popular choice. As with all things in life, the truth about whether the Romans drank beer or wine is less clearcut than we may assume.
